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# Introduction to Shell Scripting, part 6

By Ben Okopnik

Originally published in Issue 57 of Linux Gazette, September 2000

### Random Wanderings

Well, this should be the last article in the "Introduction to Shell Scripting" series - I've had great feedback from a number of readers (and thank you all for your kind comments!), but we've covered most of the basics; that was the original purpose of the series. I may yet pop up at some point in the future ("Oh, rats, I forgot to explain XYZ!"), but those of you who've been following along should now consider yourselves Big-Time Experts, qualified to carry a briefcase and sound important... erm, not. :) At least you should have a pretty good idea of how to write a script and make it work - and that's a handy skill.

### A Valued Assistant

Quite a while ago, I found myself in a quandary while writing a script; I had an array that contained a list of command lines that I needed to execute based on certain conditions. I could read the array easily enough, or print out any of the variables - but what I needed was to execute them! What to do, what to do... as I remember, I gave up for lack of that one capability, and rewrote the whole (quite large) script (it was not a joyful experience). "eval" would have been the solution.

Here's how it works - create a variable called $cmd, like so:

    Odin:~$ cmd='cat .bashrc|sort'

Now, you can echo the thing -

    Odin:~$ echo $cmd
    cat .bashrc|sort'

- but how do you execute it? Just running "$cmd" produces an error:

    Odin:~$ $cmd
    cat: .bashrc|sort: No such file or directory

This is where "eval" comes into its own: "`eval $cmd`" would evaluate the string contained in the variable as if it had been entered at the command line. This is not something that comes up too often... but it is a capability of the shell that you need to be aware of.

### Trapped Like a Rat

One of the standard techniques in scripting (and in programming in general) is that of writing data to temporary files - there are many reasons to do this. But, and this is a big one, what happens when your users interrupt that script half-way through execution? (For those of you who have scripts like that and haven't thought of the issue, sorry to give you material for nightmares. At least I'll show you the solution as well.)

You guessed it: a mess. Files in "/tmp", perhaps important data left hanging in the breeze, files thought to be updated that are not... Yuck. How about a way for us to exit gracefully, despite a frantic keyboard-pounding user who just has to run Quake RIGHT NOW?

The "trap" command provides an answer of sorts (shooting said user is far more effective and enjoyable, but may get you talked about).

    #!/bin/bash

    function cleanup ()
    {
    	# Ignore 'Ctrl-C'; let him pound away...
    	trap '' 2

    	echo "Wake up, Neo."
    	sleep 2
    	clear
    	echo "The Matrix has you."

    	echo "He's at it again."|mail admin -s "Update stopped by $USER"

    	# Restore the original data
    	tar xvzf /mnt/backup/accts_recvbl -C /usr/local/acct

    	# Delete 'tmp' stuff
    	rm -rf /tmp/in_process/

    	# OK, we've taken care of the cleanup. Now, it's REVENGE time!!!
    	rm /usr/games/[xs]quake

    	# Give him a nice new password...
    	chpasswd $USER:~X%y!Z@zF%HG72F8b@Moron!&(~64sfgrnntQwvff########^

    	# We'll back up all his stuff... Oh, what does "--remove-files" do?
    	tar cvz --remove-files -f /mnt/timbuktu/bye-bye.tgz /home/$USER
    	# Heh-heh-heh...
    	umount /mnt/timbuktu

    	trap 2 # Set Ctrl-C back to normal
    	exit
    	# Yep, I meant to do that...
    }

    trap 'cleanup' 2
    ...

There's a little of the BOfH inside every admin. <grin> (For those of you not familiar with the "BOfH Saga", this is a must read for every Unix admin; appalling and hideously funny. Search the Web.)

DON'T run this script... yes, I know it's tempting. The point of "trap" is, we can define a behavior whenever the user hits `Ctrl-Break' (or for that matter, any time the script exits) that is much more useful to us than just crashing out of the program; it gives us a chance to clean up, generate warnings, etc.

"trap" can also catch other signals; the fact is that "kill", despite its name, does not of itself `kill' a process - it sends a signal. The process then decides what to do with that signal (this is a crude description, but generally correct). If you wish to see the entire list of signals, just type "trap -l" or "kill -l" or even "killall -l" (which does not list the signal numbers, just names). The ones most commonly used are 1) SIGHUP, 2) SIGINT, 3) SIGQUIT, 9) SIGKILL, and 15) SIGTERM (this last one is the default for 'kill' when no signal name or number is specified.)

There are also the `special' signals. They are: 0) EXIT, which traps on any exit from the shell, and DEBUG (no number assigned), which can - here's a nifty thing! - be used to troubleshoot shell scripts (it traps every time a simple command is executed). DEBUG is actually more of an "info only" item: you can have this exact action without writing any "trap"s, simply by adding "-x" to your shebang (see "In Case Of Trouble...", below).

"trap" is a powerful tool. In LG#37, Jim Dennis had a short script fragment that created a secure directory under "/tmp" for just this sort of thing - temp files that you don't want exposed to the world. Pretty cool gadget; I've used it myself a few times since.

### In Case Of Trouble, Break Glass

Speaking of troubleshooting, Bash provides several very useful tools that can help you find the errors in your script. These are switches - part of the "set" command syntax - that are used in the shebang line of the script itself. These switches are:

- -n Read the shell script lines, but do not execute
- -v Print the lines as they're read
- -f Disable wildcard expansion
- -x Prints $PS4 (the "level of indirection" prompt), interprets, executes, and prints the command.

I've found that "-nv" and "-x" (and perhaps "-xf") are the most useful invocations: one gives you the exact location of a "bad" line (you can see where the script would crash); the other, `noisy' though it is, is handy for seeing where things aren't happening quite the right way (when, even though the syntax is right, the action is not what you want). Good troubleshooting tools both. As time passes and you get used to the quirks of error reporting, you'll probably use them less and less, but they're invaluable to a new shell script writer.

### Use The Source, Luke

Here's a line familiar to every "C" programmer:

    #include <stdio.h>

- a very useful concept, that of sourcing external files. What that means is that a "C" programmer can write routines (functions) that are used repeatedly, store them in a `library' (an external file), and bring them in as they are needed. Well - have I not said that shell scripting is a mature, capable programming language? - we can do the same thing! The file doesn't even have to be executable; the syntax that we use in sourcing it takes care of that. The example below is a snippet of the top of my function library, "Funky". Currently, it is a single file, a couple of kB long, and growing apace.

There's a tricky little bit of Bash maneuvering that's worth knowing: if you create a variable called BASH_ENV in your .bash_profile, like so:

    export BASH_ENV="~/.bash_env"

then create a file called ".bash_env" in your home directory, that file will be re-read every time you start a `non-login non-interactive shell' - i.e., a shell script. That's where I source "Funky" from - that way, any changes in it are immediately available to any shell script. It can also be sourced right from the command line.

    calc () # Integer-only command-line calculator
    {
        printf "$(($*))\n"
    }

    getch () # silently gets a char from keyboard, returns $GETCH
    {
        OLD=`stty -g`
        stty raw -echo
        dd if=/dev/tty bs=1 count=1 2>/dev/null
        stty $OLD
    }

    colsel () # Color selector - iterates through all the $TERM's color choices
    {
    trap 'echo -en "\E[$40;1m"; clear' 0	# Reset on exit
    n=49	# Max foreground color value
    while [ "$n" -ne 0 ]
    do
    	m=39	# Max background color value
    	while [ "$m" -ne 0 ]
    	do
    		echo -en "\E[$m;${n}m"
            	clear
    		echo "This is a test."
    		echo -en "\E[$40;1m"
            	echo -n " $n $m "
            	read
    		(( m-- ))
    	done
    	(( n-- ))
    done
    }

Not too different from a script, is it? No shebang is necessary, since this file does not get executed by itself. So, how do we use it in a script? Here it is (we'll pretend that I don't source "Funky" in ".bash_env"):

    #!/bin/bash
    . Funky
    declare -i Total=0
    leave ()
    {
        echo "So youse are done shoppin'?"
        [ $total -ne 0 ] && echo "Dat'll be $total bucks, pal."
        echo "Have a nice day."
        exit
    }

    # Exec the 'leave' function on exit
    trap 'leave' 0

    clear

    # Infinite loop!
    while :
    do
        echo
        echo "Whaddaya want? I got Cucumbers, Tomatoes, Lettuce, Onions,"
        echo "and Radishes today."
        echo

        # Here's where we call a sourced function...
        input=`getch`
        # ...and reference a variable created by that function.
        case $input
        in
    	C|c) Total=$Total+1; echo "Them are good cukes." ;;
    	T|t) Total=$Total+2; echo "Ripe tomatoes, huh?" ;;
    	L|l) Total=$Total+2; echo "I picked da lettuce myself." ;;
    	O|o) Total=$Total+1; echo "Fresh enough to make youse cry!" ;;
    	R|r) Total=$Total+2; echo "Real crispy radishes." ;;
    	*) echo "Ain't got nuttin' like that today, mebbe tomorra." ;;
        esac
        sleep 2

     done

Note the period before "Funky": that's an alias for the "source" command. When sourced, "Funky" acquires an interesting property: just as if we had asked "bash" to execute a file, it goes out and searches the path listed in $PATH. Since I keep "Funky" in "/usr/local/bin" (part of my $PATH), I don't need to give an explicit path to it.

If you're going to be writing shell scripts, I strongly suggest that you start your own `library' of functions. (HINT: Steal the functions from the above example!) Rather than typing them over and over again, a single "source" argument will get you lots and lots of `canned' goodies.

### Wrapping Up The Series

Well - overall, lots of topics covered, some "quirks" explained; all good stuff, useful shell scripting info. There's a lot more to it - remember, this series was only an introduction to shell scripting - but anyone who's stuck with me from the beginning and persevered in following my brand of pretzel-bending logic (poor people! irretrievably damaged, not even the best psychologist in the world can help you now... :) should now be able to design, write, and troubleshoot a fairly decent shell script. The rest of it - understanding and writing the more complex, more involved scripts - can only come with practice, otherwise known as "making lots of mistakes". In that spirit, I wish you all lots of "mistakes"!

Happy Linuxing!

References

    The "man" pages for 'bash', 'builtins', 'stty'
    "Introduction to Shell Scripting - The Basics", LG #53
    "Introduction to Shell Scripting", LG #54
    "Introduction to Shell Scripting", LG #55
    "Introduction to Shell Scripting", LG #56
    "Introduction to Shell Scripting", LG #57
    "Introduction to Shell Scripting", LG #59

Ben is the Editor-in-Chief for Linux Gazette and a member of The Answer Gang.

Ben was born in Moscow, Russia in 1962. He became interested in electricity at the tender age of six, promptly demonstrated it by sticking a fork into a socket and starting a fire, and has been falling down technological mineshafts ever since. He has been working with computers since the Elder Days, when they had to be built by soldering parts onto printed circuit boards and programs had to fit into 4k of memory. He would gladly pay good money to any psychologist who can cure him of the recurrent nightmares.

His subsequent experiences include creating software in nearly a dozen languages, network and database maintenance during the approach of a hurricane, and writing articles for publications ranging from sailing magazines to technological journals. After a seven-year Atlantic/Caribbean cruise under sail and passages up and down the East coast of the US, he is currently anchored in St. Augustine, Florida. He works as a technical instructor for Sun Microsystems and a private Open Source consultant/Web developer. His current set of hobbies includes flying, yoga, martial arts, motorcycles, writing, and Roman history; his Palm Pilot is crammed full of alarms, many of which contain exclamation points.

He has been working with Linux since 1997, and credits it with his complete loss of interest in waging nuclear warfare on parts of the Pacific Northwest.

Copyright © 2005, Ben Okopnik. Released under the Open Publication license unless otherwise noted in the body of the article. Linux Gazette is not produced, sponsored, or endorsed by its prior host, SSC, Inc.

Published in Issue 116 of Linux Gazette, July 2005

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